Garden Practices

HOW TO DIAGNOSE GARDEN TROUBLES
Victor H. Ries

BEFORE any garden problem can be corrected, or plant damage pre­vented or controlled, it is necessary to know the cause. Sometimes this is very evident, but more often it is not. In the latter case, expert help is needed which can be had from county agents of your state agricultural service, some garden centers, botanical gardens and profes­sional horticulturists. Unfortunately, all too few local salesmen handling pest con­trol materials are trained diagnosticians, or even experienced gardeners. In any case, no one can prescribe a cure without seeing the damaged plant, the pest that causes it or, in some cases, without having a soil analysis.

The Causes of Trouble

Before blaming an insect pest or dis­ease, check the following possible causes, one or more of which may be to blame.

The soil. Has it been properly pre­pared by adding at least 5 per cent organic matter? Has sufficient fertilizer been applied to maintain adequate growth? If not, growth may be stunted. Has too much fertilizer been used so that the roots have been damaged? This may produce scorched edges on leaves, and in more severe cases the plants wilt and die. Putting fertilizer in the bot­tom of a hole without thoroughly mixing it with the soil before setting in the plant is a common cause of damage. Applying more fertilizer than recommended on the package may injure plants. Letting fertilizer stay on the foliage may burn it. Always wash or shake off any fertilizer that falls on the foliage.

Acid-soil plants, such as azaleas and rhododendrons, will have yellowish leaves with darker veins and few if any flowers if the soil is not sufficiently acid. In some localities, but not nearly as many as suspected, the soil may be too acid so that most plants will be stunted and sickly looking. Liming will correct the situation. In the same way, soils that are too alkaline because of over-liming or which are naturally alkaline, as in some western states, may stunt and even kill some kinds of plants. Wherever soils are naturally alkaline one should grow mostly lime-tolerant plants. How­ever, such plants as azaleas and oleanders can be grown in alkaline soil treated with iron chelates such as Sequestrene.

Soil moisture is often a limiting factor. More often an excess of water causes the trouble. Lack of moisture is often a problem where either competing roots absorb moisture or it cannot fall natur­ally, as under trees and shrubs, beneath over-hanging eaves, between buildings and in sandy soils. Artificial watering must be done more frequently under such conditions.

Sunlight is necessary for plant growth. Some plants require all-day sun to thrive, Without it they may not bloom or grow as well as they should. On the other hand, some plants cannot stand full sun and must be given protection, and they, along with shade-tolerant plants, are best used in shade plantings. (See lists on pp. 15, 90)

Climate. All too often we try to grow plants that are not adapted to our climate and although they may survive a few years, in less congenial seasons they may be damaged. For example, the evergreen magnolia of the South is being grown in many places in the North where it is never likely to live to a ripe old age. Many azaleas now being shipped from the South to northern gardens may also prove to be tender.

Temperature is often a limiting factor. Low winter temperatures will damage or kill plants that are not completely hardy. This damage may not be apparent until early summer, as is often the case with roses and broad-leaved evergreens. Sudden drops in temperature, especially in the fall before plants are sufficiently hardened, may damage them. High sum­mer temperatures will restrict growth of some plants, whereas cold summers will limit the growth of more tropical plants, many annual flowers, and such vegetables as corn, melons, squash and toma­toes.

Wind is sometimes a limiting factor. Broadleaf evergreens and some needled evergreens (hemlocks) may be so dried by wind that the leaves scorch. The corners of a house, the narrow place between buildings, wind-exposed hilltops and open country are likely places for wind problems. Wind hitting a building and bouncing back may cause more damage than normal. All wind damage is usually worse on young plants before they have become well established.

Chemicals. Over-doses of chemicals used in the control of insects and diseases may damage the foliage. When the tem­perature is over 85°, many dusts and sprays will burn even when used at the recommended strengths. Sulfur is espe­cially dangerous to plants when the temperature is over 85° F.

Another unexpected source of trouble is from careless use of weed control chemicals. Many of these are difficult to remove from the sprayer, so a separate sprayer is advisable. The drift of herbi-side dust or spray onto particularly sensitive plants may do more harm to them than to the weeds themselves.

The use of fly and mosquito sprays containing oil is almost sure to burn some plants.

In preparing spray mix­tures, add the measured amount of pesticide to a small amount of wat­er first. Stir until thor­oughly mixed. Then pour into spray tank, add water to proper level, agitate before and during spraying
Roche.

Insects pests are sometimes easily seen but all too often they are not visible. Seedlings disappearing, holes in leaves and flower buds eaten may indicate that slugs are working at night. Stems cut off near the ground may be the work of cutworms which hide in the soil by day. Stunted plants may be caused by root aphis. Since the control of insects is a broad subject it would be well to consult authoritative garden books and also the "Handbook on Plant Pests and Diseases," published by the Brooklyn Garden.

Plant diseases may be caused by a specific parasite as well as by unfavor­able growing conditions. Diseases on the surface of a plant are easy to see and diagnose. But all too often the disease organism is in the inner tissues of the plant or on the roots where it is not easy to observe. This usually calls for professional help to diagnose the cause and prescribe a control.

Equipment for pest control

The gardener can take his choice be­tween spraying and dusting. Dusting is usually easier and quicker although dusts are not likely to be as effective as properly applied sprays. The home gardener seldom has the equipment to do a really good spraying job. The most efficient sprayer should give at least 100 lbs. pres­sure, have a 5- to 10-foot hose, a 3- to 6-foot spray rod and a nozzle with an elbow. Small knapsack sprayers, although convenient, do not meet these specifica­tions. Small hand atomizers are neither efficient nor effective for more than a house plant or two.

Dust guns of one or two quart capacity are easy to operate, relatively inexpen­sive and long lasting. Larger models with bellows or with cranks are available for use in larger gardens.

Precautions to follow in pest control

1. Cover all parts of plants, especially undersides of leaves.
2. Do not dust or spray when plant is wilted.
3. Do not dust or spray when temperature is over 85°, particularly in direct sun.
4. Do not mix different dusts or sprays unless recommended by manufacturer.
5. Measure all amounts accurately; overdose may damage plants.
6. Keep all pest control materials labeled, out of reach of children.

Light - weight dusters are now available which greatly simplify the task of caring for roses and other flowers. This one holds about one pound of dust; blower is operated with crank. At least 20 rose bushes can be dusted with one filling

Gottscho-Schleìsner

7. Use soap or detergent in sprays if recommended. These are "spread­ers." Commercial spreader-stickers are available.

1. Prepare all spray mixtures fresh before using.
2. Wash sprayer thoroughly after use; some spray materials are corrosive.

Materials to use in insect control

Aramite—mites
Chlordane—most insects except mites and aphis. Also for slugs, earthworms, grubs, ants, chiggers. Use dust or spray.
DDT—most insects, except aphis and mites. Use dust or spray.
Kelthane—mites
Lindane—most insects. Dust or spray.
Malathion—most insects including mites and aphis. Dust or spray.
Methoxychlor—effective against insects on beans, gourds, melons, squash. Dust or spray.
Nicotine sulfate—mostly for aphis. Spray only.
Phosdrin—aphis and mites
Rotenone—mostly aphis and other soft-bodied insects. Dust or spray.
Sevin—general purpose
Thiodan—aphis
Materials for disease control
Arasan—seed treatment. Dust.
Captan—most diseases except powdery mildew. Dust or spray.
Ferbam—same as for captan.
Fixed coppers—sprays for leaf spots, downy and powdery mildews, substitute for Bordeaux.
Karathane—also called Mildex. Mostly for mildew.
Maneb, Phaltan—spray or dust, same as for captan.
Sulfur—largely replaced by captan and ferbam except for mildew. Dust or spray.
Ziram—spray or dust, same as for cap­tan.

All-purpose materials

It is usually more convenient for the home gardener to buy all-purpose mix­tures than to attempt to mix his own. A number of these are on the market, sold under various trade names. The several different chemical components are always given on the package. Two common form­ulations are: ferbam, DDT, rotenone, ,aratmite and sulfur or karathane; also, cap­tan, malathion, DDT, and karathane.
Materials for general insect control

Ants—chlordane, dieldrin, or hepta-chlor
Bagworins—malathion (DDT would in­crease spider mites on evergreens), lead arsenate, or toxaphene as soon as eggs hatch. Spraying the bags is ineffective.
Caterpillars—DDT, malathion, chlor­dane
Cutworms—chlordane or dieldrin
Earthworms and grubs—same materials that are used for ants
Fleabeetles—rotenone, thiodan
Lacebugs—DDT, malathion, lindane, or sevin
Leaf hoppers—DDT, malathion
Leaf miners—chlordane, malathion, DDT
Mealybug—malathion
Plant lice (aphis)—malathion, rote­none, nicotine sulfate, phosdrin, or thio­dan
Scale insects—dormant oil or mixture of DDT and malathion applied as eggs hatch. Usually this is in the spring, but varies with each kind of scale.
Slugs—metaldehyde in prepared baits
Sowbugs—DDT, chlordane
Spidermites (red spider)—malathion, aramite, or kelthane. Do not use DDT because it kills other insects that feed on mites.
Thrips—DDT or malathion
White fly—malathion or rotenone
Wireworms—lindane

For control of insects and diseases by natural means, see Handbook on Biological Control of Plant Pests (No. 34 on back cover of this issue).

HOW TO MANAGE GARDEN SOILS

THE soil in lawns and gardens is sel- dom satisfactory for plant growth without proper preparation. It is, how­ever, less costly to modify the soil that one has than to replace it with so-called top soil. All too often purchased soil is no better, and sometimes far worse, than the existing soil. Besides, new soil often in­troduces more weeds and pests into the garden.

Good drainage is important for good growth of most plants. Poor drainage means that water has replaced the all-important air in the soil, which smothers the roots. Roots require air just as much as do leaves. Some plants are more sensi­tive to this than others. Roses, cherries, yews are but a few plants that are seri­ously damaged by wet soils. Depressions that hold surface water, and downspouts from the roof that are not connected to drains are two common sources of trouble.

The only satisfactory method insuring adequate drainage of heavy soils is the installation of lines of agricultural drain tile to carry excess water to a lower level, a drain or storm sewer. Using 4-inch tile, set 12 to 18 inches beneath the surface, with the lines of tile 25 to 30 feet apart, will be sufficient. Allow an inch or two of drop for each 100 feet of line. There is no need of worry that this will dry out necessary moisture because it only re­moves the excess.

The use of rocks, stones, bricks or cinders in the bottom of a flower bed, which is so often recommended, does not

All too often, black muck is sold as peat. It runs about 40 per cent organic and as such is relatively-worthless for soil conditioning or any other garden or lawn use.

remove water from a heavy soil; it mere­ly makes a good cistern to hold it.

Proper grading of the soil surface is helpful but does not always solve the problem. Hillsides can be poorly drained if there is a layer of hardpan or impervi­ous clay beneath the surface.

Techniques for Improving Soils

Organic matter in the soil is all-impor­tant. Most soils do not have enough of it for the best growth of plants. There should be at least 5 per cent organic con­tent, and for most plants 15 or even 20 per cent will give even better results. In other words, it is almost impossible to have too high an organic content. Often, the addition of organic matter to the soil gives better results than an applica­tion of fertilizer. The reason for this is that with better soil aeration, there is greater root growth. Clay soils, especial­ly, need more organic matter to improve drainage as well as aeration. Sandy soils need it to increase their moisture-holding capacity.

The easiest and least expensive method of incorporating organic matter is to grow it. A "green manure" crop of winter wheat or rye may be sown, one pound to 1,000 sq. ft., in late August or September to be plowed, dug or rototilled under the following spring. In the spring, as early as possible but as late as late June, rye grass may be sown. This is turned under in late August. It is advisable to apply a complete fertilizer, such as a 4-12-4, 5-10-5, 5-10-10, 6-10-4 or something similar, at the rate of 20 lbs. to 1,000 sq. ft. when the seed is sown and again just before it is turned under. This later application hastens decompo­sition. It is amazing how much these methods aid in loosening even the heavi­est soils. Nothing else does as well as the millions of tiny roots of these grass plants'.

When green manuring is not possible, various forms of organic material may be purchased and mixed with the soil. If you spade, about three spadings may be necessary to obtain a good mixture to a depth of about a foot.

Inorganic materials, such as sand, fine cinders, and coal ashes, are not nearly as effective as organic. Besides they do not furnish the materials needed by micro­organisms in the soil to carry on their all-important work.

Organic matter varies greatly in price, so it pays to consider carefully what to buy. Barnyard manure is the traditional thing to use but usually it is more ex­pensive than other forms. Unless fresh, it contains little actual fertilizer value, but in any event it can still be a good soil conditioner. All too often, manure contains a variety of weed seeds which may become pests.

Peat is usually the least expensive ma­terial available. Most of it is weed-free, odorless, disease- and insect-free. It is available in compressed bales of varying size, as well as in bulk. Since it varies in moisture content, weight is not a good basis for comparison. Cubic content is equally confusing. So it comes down to comparing, bushel for bushel, how much loose fluffed-up peat you get per dollar spent. Peat moss runs from 85 to 95 per cent organic.

Other organic materials suitable for improving garden soil are sawdust, shav­ings, straw, old hay, rotted leaves, buck­wheat hulls, shredded bark, peanut hulls and other materials available locally. A layer of any of these materials, dug into the soil when preparing the garden each spring, will improve its structure. If any of these materials are more or less de­composed, they may be used without dan­ger of plant starvation caused by the soil bacteria taking most of the soil nitro­gen while decomposing them. If they are not decomposed, fertilizer containing nitrogen must be applied. This same problem occurs when mulching plants with any undecomposed organic mulch. It also occurs when growing seedlings or plants in paper pots, even in waxed paper milk cartons.

Organic matter added to soil is broken down and used by soil organisms so it is necessary to replace it every few years. This is one reason why it is necessary to do over flower beds and borders and repot house plants. As this organic matter is destroyed, it leaves the soil darker. Too many gardeners believe that dark soil is richer and better than light colored soil. This is not always true. Nor is a black woods soil usually rich. This is just another of those old fallacious gar­den beliefs.

What to Know About Fertilizers

Most soils are lacking in one or more elements necessary for plant growth. The three most important of these are nitro­gen, phosphorus and potash. Other ele­ments sometimes lacking are magnesium, manganese, boron and iron. The latter, and others are called trace elements. Rarely must they be added to the soil because most of them are present as im­purities in commercial fertilizers. There are localities where one or more may be the limiting factor in plant growth. Con­sult your county extension agent or state experiment station for advice.

State laws require that the analysis must appear on every fertilizer package, giving the per cent of available nitrogen, phosphorus and potash, expressed in this order as 4-12-4. Since soils vary from one place to another, even in the same garden, and since it is not possible to know the exact requirements of each and every kind of plant, the best one can do is give them all a balanced diet. Usually, one kind of fertilizer may be used on everything, without fear, for the plants can not read the labels!

If a fertilizer contains nitrogen, phos­phorus and potash it is called complete. If the components are chemicals it is an inorganic or commercial fertilizer. If it is made up of plant or animal products, it is organic. Except that the chemicals are often more quickly available than the organics it really makes no difference to

Gantner
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All kitchen waste, weeds, other organic mat­ter can be returned directly to the soil with the trenching method. Fresh soil covers the material when the next trench is dug

Winter rye, sown in the fall, is ready to dig under in spring when planting time arrives. Turn the clumps over so the tops are buried. Add fertilizer before planting

How to Improve Garden Soil

Compost is the most convenient source of humus in most gardens. Spread a heavy layer over the ground before doing the final digging. All organic matter lightens soil Lime may be added once every few years, which will correct over-acidity and loosen clay soils. Lime or fertilizer can be spread and dug in at the same time with compost

Use of lime, alter­nate layers of soil, fertilizer and water will hasten decompo­sition of compost. Old compost pile is in rear, new one in foreground

Gantner

the plants, the claims of organic garden­ers to the contrary. Once the nutrients are dissolved in the soil so that the plants can use them, the elements available to nourish plants are the same. Chemical fertilizers are usually cheaper than or-ganics.

A commercial fertilizer is required to contain at least 20 units of nutrients as indicated by the analysis. Many organic fertilizers contain considerably less, yet actually cost more per pound.

Ordinary commercial fertilizers, though soluble in the soil, are but slowly soluble in water so are usually applied dry. Al­though nitrogen and potash dissolve and leach down into the soil rather quickly, phosphorus penetrates but a scant inch a year. For this reason it is well to mix the fertilizer with the soil at time of planting. Never put any fertilizer in direct contact with the roots for they may get burned.
Special fertilizers are available today

Compost bin of rough slabs keeps leaves from blowing away, and makes the pile neater looking. When compost is ready to use, slabs can be removed from one end for easy handling
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that are quickly soluble in water. In these, the phosphorus penetrates the soil to reach, the lower roots. Many of these fertilizers have a high analysis, contain­ing as many as 60 units of nutrients. Typical analyses are 19-28-17; 23-21-17, 20-20-20. Dissolved in water and used according to instructions, they are per­fectly safe. But to use them as you would a dry fertilizer is dangerous be­cause of their greater concentration. The same is true of the 10-10-10 and 12-12-12 farm fertilizers now available. They can be used if mixed with the soil but often burn if put on top of the soil where plants are growing.

Plants soon exhaust the nutrients in the soil. Nitrogen and potash both leach away, and so must be replenished at regu­lar intervals. Seldom do we apply them as much, or as often, as plants can utilize. Fertilizer once dissolved in the soil moisture moves downward only, never laterally. Consequently it must be spread uniformly over the entire surface of the soil. Every square inch should receive its share. This is easy to do with a spreader on lawns and other areas where no plants are in the way. Otherwise, the fertilizer must be spread by hand. It may take practice to do this evenly. Weigh out a pound and spread it on a patch 5 by 5 feet. This will be at the rate of 4 lbs. to 100 square feet, which is the maximum recommended for a 20 unit nutrient commercial fertilizer, such as a 4-12-4.

Gardens should be fertilized every spring, preferably before growth starts so that there is little danger of burning foliage. For most garden flowers, a sec­ond application may be made in June and a third in September. The roots of plants take in the nutrients as long as the soil is not frozen.

Soluble fertilizers will take up moisture and ruin the package unless they are kept in glass or plastic so moisture can not reach them. It is best to buy only enough to last one season. They are used dis­solved in water at recommended rates to fertilize flower beds, lawns, and other

Singer

Shrubs and evergreens in borders need less
weeding and are not likely to get dry when
mulched with old hay or straw
ornamental plants during the growing season.

Consult the Handbook on Soils for complete information on soil, and good soil management.

Home-made rigs, like this one of wooden
slats and chicken wire, speed the task of
carting dry leaves to the compost pile

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BE A COMPOST MAKER

Conrad B. Link

ORGANIC matter is an essential com­ponent of good soil. It is not a permanent part of the soil and so must be renewed continually. In the garden this organic matter may be supplied as manure or as compost. Animal manures are not easily obtained and are expensive, especially in or near large cities, and so most gardeners must use other types of organic matter. Peat is one of the well known types, easily handled and readily obtained. Local products useful for gar­dens are sometimes available, such as humus, shredded redwood bark, shavings, buckwheat hulls, ground corn cobs, and shredded sugar cane. They are not all of equal value, and some of them are better adapted for mulching purposes than for immediate incorporation into the soil.

The Home Compost Pile

The efficient gardener can produce much of the organic matter his soil needs by composting plant refuse—making ar­tificial or synthetic manure. It is not difficult. A compost pile does not take up much space but should be hidden from view. Leaves provide the major garden waste material useful for com­posting but other materials may also be used, such as straw, hay, shavings, lawn clippings, and nongreasy kitchen waste.

Usually, a compost pile is built up gradually as materials become available. The first step is to make a layer of the plant refuse about 6 to 12 inches thick. (Diseased or insect-infested material must not be used but should be burned.) On top of this a light layer of lime should be sprinkled, and a complete fertilizer such as 4-12-4 or 5-10-5. About 50 pounds of fertilizer and 25 pounds of lime are sufficient for a pile of 125 cubic feet. The fertilizer provides nitro­gen, •which is needed by the bacteria of decomposition. This nitrogen later be­comes available to the plants. Phosphorus and potassium also are changed in such a way as to become more readily available to plants. Lime prevents the decaying material from becoming too acid, and provides more favorable conditions for bacterial action. The amount of lime used is not enough to produce an alkaline reaction, and so the compost may be used for plants that need an acid soil.

As more material becomes available, more layers with lime and fertilizer are put on, until the pile is 4 to 5 feet high. It is important that the material be moist enough to encourage decomposition. As the pile is built, each layer should be watered; and the entire pile should be watered in dry weather. The completed pile should have a depression on top, to catch the rain. Some gardeners put a sprinkling of manure or garden soil over each layer to add more bacteria.

After two to three months it is desir­able to turn over the compost pile. This will help to aerate it and to mix the mate­rials at the outside of the pile with those on the inside and speed up total decom­position. Large piles built up all at once may heat rather quickly inside. This high temperature is often sufficient to kill many disease and insect pests.
During the summer usable compost can be made in four to five months. Com­post made in the fall requires a longer time. The nature of the materials used also affects the time of decomposition; soft green plant material decomposes more quickly than dried leaves.

Home composting is an efficient and practical way of utilizing garden refuse —burning is wasteful of good materials.

GROWING YOUR OWN PLANTS
Victor H. Ries

GROWING plants from seed, and rooting cuttings, is so easy that no longer need any one say, "I do not have a green thumb, so cannot grow my own plants." A small nursery bed where small plants do not have to compete with big ones pays dividends in increased growth. And every good gardener should have at least one coldframe for starting plants; before long you will have several and wonder how you ever got along without one. A coldframe well filled with husky plants is the sign of an outstanding gardener.

The use of sterile, weed-free, non-com­pacting mixtures will give results most of the time provided they are kept watered and not too hot. A mixture of equal parts sand and peat is ideal. Some seeds give improved germination and early growth if shredded sphagnum moss is used. Other sterile materials are vermiculite and perlite. In any case, a 1-inch layer of this material, placed on top of a screened mixture of equal parts soil, sand and peat, is foolproof. Thus the seeds germinate in a disease-free medium, but can extend their roots into a growing medium. Cover seeds with sand and peat sifted not over one-eighth inch deep with a soup strainer or fly screen sieve. Cover­ing may also be done with the sterile mediums alone. Sowing may be in 3- or 4-inch clay pots plunged in sand, in shallow flats, or seed trays available from garden supply stores.

Outdoor sowing in a coldframe usually gives better plants than indoor sowing. A sash-covered frame may be used and seeds sown when pussy willows are in bloom. Transplant seedlings when an inch or so high to flats or directly into the soil in the frame. Space them one to two inches apart. Seed flats and seedlings may require watering every day. It is the dry­ing out that does the damage. It is difficult to over-water a porous seedbed mixture.

Seeds of many woody plants, such as trees and shrubs, must be sown in the fall so as to have a couple of months of below-40-degree temperature before they will germinate. This also applies to bleed­ing-heart, trollius, many wild flowers and some rock plants. If in doubt, fall-sow in November. This can be done with all hardy perennial flowers and with hardy annuals as well. In most cases a 3-inch pot is ample for home use. For labeling use India ink, put on painted wood labels with a #6 speed ball pen. It is much better than even a label pencil.

Rooting cuttings of hardy flowers, ever­greens, shrubs and house plants is much easier and surer if coarse vermiculite (Zonalite) is used. It does not stay too wet as may peat or the finer garden grade of vermiculite. Clean, sharp sand is also good but takes a little more experience to use. Coarse perlite (Per-loam) is also used. As soon as roots on cuttings are one-half inch long, transplant to prepared soil. Again try soil, sand and peat, equal parts instead of the regular soil in the garden. Covering the flat or pot of cut­tings with plastic, held above the tops of cuttings with wire frame, greatly reduces care.

All sorts of plants, such as coleus, geraniums, chrysanthemums, fuchsia*, impatiens, bedding begonias, may bp grown from cuttings taken from indoor plants in late winter, or from garden plants in spring. The cuttings need not be more than 3- to 5-inch pieces of the ends of new shoots. Cut bottom leaves from the cuttings and set the lower half of the stem in the rooting medium. If the material is loose, press it around the stems. Water overhead when the cuttings are in place, using a fin; spray.

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Cuttings of many shrubs and vines may be
made when shoots stop growing in early
summer. Remove the bottom leaves
Singer
Cuttings root with least care in box of root­ing medium, and covered with polyethylene film—pulled back in photo to show cuttings

Cuttings must be kept from wilting either by covering the container and cut­tings with a sheet of plastic, or keeping them out of hot sun and drafts. A small, glass-covered box or frame, which can be shaded, is an ideal place. Leave the cut­tings in the medium only long enough to root. Within two or three weeks, test a few by pulling them lightly. If they are rooted, they will not come up easily. Transplant cuttings when ready to flats, shallow boxes, individual pots of clay, plastic or pressed peat, or into a frame or nursery bed. Transfer the new plants into the garden or window boxes when weather conditions are right.

RAISING PLANTS FROM SEED

Seeds sown in vermiculite in clay pots may be watered by setting them in pan Drying before germination is prevented by covering with newspaper and a sheet of glass

Seedlings grown in pressed fiber pots, such as "Jiffy-Pots," root through the pot and suffer no transplanting shock in the garden

Singer

New strawberry runner plants, which have made their own roots, may be taken from parent plants in spring to start a new bed

A window well or cellar areaway may be convert­ed to a temporary green­house for starting seed­lings in spring by fitting it with a wooden frame covered with a sheet of polyethylene film

Ganter

After the seedlings are up, the glass and paper are removed. These seedlings are now big enough to transplant to flats or pots

Lettuce seedlings being transplanted into the garden from a coldframe can be evenly spaced by using a marked measuring stick
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TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT FOR GARDENING

GARDEN maintenance is less work and more enjoyable when well-kept tools are carefully stored and near at hand. Experienced gardeners equip themselves with quality tools and clean them immediately after each use. The edges of spades, shovels, hoes and trowels are kept keen and smooth with a file or grinding wheel. Rusting is prevented by never leaving tools outdoors. Garden tools often hold greater interest for the user if handles are painted a bright color. Avoid lending tools, especially shears, saws and power equipment, which are easily damaged.

Quality tools are easier to use than cheap ones because they have better de­sign, balance or "hang." A good tool, if properly cared for, will last for years or even a lifetime.

Most garden tools are long established designs that have proved themselves over the years. Very few worthwhile

new ones have been put on the market, but many poor ones have been.

The following tools are of greatest use to gardeners:

Shovels are still needed for moving soil and other material. A short-handled, round-pointed one is most useful, unless you expect to dig deep ditches.

A spade is handy for digging and ball­ing evergreens, and turning soil. It is more useful than a spading fork. The standard blade is about 7 inches wide and 12 inches long. A small spade with a blade about 5 by 10 inches is nice for handling small plants.

Steel rakes are essential for leveling soil, or smoothing it after spading. The back of a rake is as frequently used as the side with the teeth. For leaves a steel spring leaf rake is good. Wooden rakes break easily although bamboo rakes last well with care.

For handling trash, prunings, leaves, a long handled pitch or manure fork with four or five tines is good.

If soil is so hard that a pick or mat­tock is needed, it is much too hard to plant in. The little army pick, available in surplus stores, is a most handy tool for breaking up hard soil.

With the increased use of mulches, there is less and less need for the many and varied hand cultivators. But if needed in a vegetable garden, the wheel cultivator is an efficient tool.

Hoes, likewise, are of more use to "old timers" who have the urge to cultivate everything. The little onion and scuffle hoes are fun to use. The lighter they are

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Sturdy, clean, sharp tools, conveniently stored, are a great aid to efficient gardening the better. But, plants will grow just as well without cultivation—if well mulched.

What trash is sold in the name of trowels! Yet excellent steel, stainless steel and aluminum trowels are available. Get a short-shanked trowel since heavy digging can be better done with a spade or shovel.

A metal-bodied wheelbarroy will give a greater range of use than the old fash­ioned wooden kind. The bigger the wheel the easier it is to push. Little metal garden carts are nice but they do not supplant a wheelbarrow.
In pruning shears you get as much as you pay for. The best are wonderful and so much easier to use. For over pencil-sized branches use a lopping shear. Again get the best. For over 1-inch branches use a pruning saw. Try the pull type with fish tail teeth. Some come with curved blades and cut on the pull rather than the push stroke.

Power cultivators have their limita­tions ; they can cultivate but it takes great power to plow to the necessary depth.

Clear plastic hoses are much lighter to handle than the rubber kind. For water­ing seed beds and small plants, use a rose spray that delivers a fine spray without any force.

To supply the necessary 1 inch of water a week to gardens, hand-held hoses are out of the question. There are many inexpensive, but serviceable, oscillating sprinklers on the market. They fit into the shape of the average lawn plot better than the rotating type. Three to four hours of watering in one place is enough.

Efficient pest control requires good equipment. A 2-quart dust gun is inex­pensive and lasts for years. For power sprayers, get one that delivers 100 pounds pressure, has a 6- to 10-foot hose, and a 3- to 6-foot spray rod. The average little knapsack sprayer will not do this.

Inexpensive watering cans are a nui­sance for they do not deliver a fine spray. A good can, available from the large, mail order seed companies, costs over ten dollars but is a lifetime investment. It has a long spout and both a fine and a coarse sprinkler face.

To avoid arguments with borrowers, either paint all tool handles a distinc­tive color or paint or brand your name on them. Garden tools do have a way of roaming and not returning, especially if they are good ones.

The garden cart, pic­tured here, is one of several models available, in which soil and garden refuse can be moved with the least work. Light - weight garden tools, next to the bench, are just right for a woman to handle
Gottscho-Schleisner

PRUNING ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

Kenneth W. Reisch

PRUNING consists of the removal o£ a plant part or parts to improve the health, appearance or usefulness of the plant. Pruning provides the means o£ pre­venting, correcting or improving undesir­able growth. But, failure to use recom­mended techniques often leads to despoil­ing a tree or shrub. For instance, there are some who feel that unless a large brush pile is created, the job is unfinished. At the other extreme, there are those who feel that a plant will be damaged if even the necessary amount of pruning is done.

In order to prune correctly, considera­tion should be given to such factors as the rate and habit of the plant's growth, specific pruning techniques recommended for the plant, and the desired end result.

Pruning is work, and the trend in mod­ern gardening appears to be toward a reduction in maintenance. The necessity for pruning can be considerably reduced by selecting the proper tree or shrub for the location. Those which are not en­tirely hardy, or which will grow too large for the location, or tend to be vigorous and become quickly overgrown, or are inclined to have a lot of dead wood or become unsightly with age, should be kept to a minimum in the landscape plan. The wide availability of many plant types in nurseries today has enabled the home owner to consider these factors when buy­ing plants. Thus, proper selection of trees and shrubs can minimize the need for pruning.

Here are some of the specific situations which good pruning practice can solve:

1. Control of undesirable habit of growth.
2. Removal of dead, broken, or disease- and insect-infested branches.
3. Inducing more compact and sturdy growth by removal of certain branches even though healthy.
4. To produce a desired formal shape or size.
5. Improvement of flowering and fruit­ing by proper thinning or removal of old branches.
6. To better the chances of survival at transplanting time by reducing number or size of branches.
7. To retain maximum color in colored-twig shrubs by removing old ranches.

The proper time of pruning is often a question and, in general, from the standpoint of plant growth, pruning can be done at practically any time of year. However, one must consider such factors as food supply, flowering period and win­ter hardiness. The operation can be harmful if new growth is removed in the spring. A deciduous plant manufactures food during the growing season which is stored in various forms in roots and stems over winter. This food is the re­serve energy supply for new growth and if the growth is removed before new food can be produced, growth may be stunted for the season.

With most plants, the ideal time to prune is during the dormant season be­fore new growth starts. Some flowering shrubs are exceptions and this is indi­cated under the shrub pruning section.

The method of making pruning cuts is of great importance. Most rapid heal­ing of a wound occurs when the cuts are made flush with the adjoining branch. When even small stubs are left, healing is prevented, the stubs die back and dis­ease and rot organisms gain entry to healthy tissue. The same problem occurs when branches are broken instead of cut off. Cuts of terminal shoots should be made just above a bud.

Proper care should be given to large pruning cuts to facilitate healing. The wounds should be shaped by carving to a point at top and bottom and all wounds larger than one inch in diameter should be covered with a tree wound dressing. House paints or paints with a lead base should never be used. "Tree paint" is available from all good suppliers to the horticultural trade.

Breaking off the tip of a branch (pinching it), as shown above, stimulates the growth of more branches, as shown at the right, and prevents the plant from growing too tall

The general procedure to use in prun­ing any plant is to follow this schedule.

1. Remove dead, broken, and disease- or insect-infested branches.
2. Remove branches which cross or are detrimental to the shape and appearance of the plant.
3. Use the pruning procedures specified under the plant types that follow.

Specific procedures for pruning differ­ent types of plants are outlined under the following headings.
Pruning Established Plants Shade Trees

1. Remove branches interfering with foot or vehicular traffic.
2. Thin out top to open internal branches to light.
3. Do not cut central leader unless absolutely necessary.
4. If possible it is better to make two small rather than one large cut.
5. Call in a recognized arborist for

How to remove a large branch. Make cuts at (1) and (2) first, to prevent skinning the bark down the tree. Make the final cut (3), nearly parallel to the trunk, so that a stub is not left, as in (4), which will rot work in high places—the chances are that you are neither trained nor conditioned to do high pruning.

6. To prevent tearing bark, cut any large branches as indicated in sketch.
Flowering Trees

1. Prune after flowering.
2. Follow recommendations indicated under shade trees.
3. Thinning top will increase flowering however, a heavy cut-back may reduce or eliminate flowers for a season.

Shrubs 1.

Don't simply trim back top, thin out plant by cutting older branches back to ground.

1. Prune often and reduce necessity of heavy out back.
2. Some shrubs such as forsythia, mockorange, deutzia, and spirea can be cut back to the ground when it is necessary to rejuvenate old plants that have grown too large or are mostly "old wood."
3. In order to retain flower buds, shrubs such as forsythia, lilac, mock-orange and garland spirea should be pruned shortly after flowering.
4. On shrubs with colored twigs, such as red and yellowtwig dogwood,
   about one-third of the older wood should be removed every year to
   retain maximum coloration.
5. Remove old flowers of shrubs such as lilac, rhododendron, hibiscus and magnolia to maintain optimum flowering for the next season.

Narrowleaf Evergreens

1. With the exception of pines, most narrowleaf evergreens should be cut back the desired amount in early spring, prior to growth.

With a little practice, hedges may be given even, smooth trim with electric clippers
Roche

1. When branches are cut back hard, leave some foliage on the remaining
   part. One exception to this is yew which will grow from a severe cut­
   back, though this is not generally recommended because the plants will
   be unsightly for two or three years.
2. Pines are "thickened up" by pinching off part of each new shoot, the "candle" growth which comes from the buds at the beginning of the growing season.
3. Yearly pruning is required in or­ der to maintain a compact habit.
4. It is common practice to shear evergreens with a hedge shear and thus obtain a severe, formal plant. More interesting, semi-formal plants can
   be obtained by pruning individual branches with hand shears.
5. Evergreens should be occasionally thinned out to open inner branches
   to light.

Broadleaf Evergreens 1. Relatively little pruning is neces­sary with plants of this type with the exception of rules 1 and 2 un­der general pruning recommenda­tions.

High branches of small trees, tall shrubs, vines are within reach of the pole pruner
Gottscho-Schleisner

Vines and Ground Covers

1. Some deciduous vines require occasional heavy pruning or complete cutback.
2. Prune vines to keep them out of windows or other similar areas on
   structures.
3. Ground covers may require pruning to keep them •within bounds or to
   rejuvenate plantings.
4. Little pruning is necessary on many of the evergreen ground covers. Exceptions are some kinds of euony mus, English ivy, spurge, and creeping mahonia.

Roses

1. Follow rules 1 and 2 under general pruning recommendations.
2. Cut remaining canes back to 18 to 24 inches in height.
3. Prune hybrid teas, floribundas, and grandifloras prior to growth in the
   spring.
4. Prune climbers after flowering.

Hedges

1. Prune prior to growth in spring and again in summer to remove feathery new growth.
2. Prune annually to retain size and shape.
3. Prune to shape so that base of hedge is wider than the top. This allows light to reach the lower branches and prevents legginess.

Pruning Plants for New Plantings Shade Trees

1. When moving bare-root, prune broken and dead roots and cut back
   tops in proportion to the size of the root system.
2. When pruning the top, cut back lateral branches, not the terminal.
3. When moved with a ball of soil, only light top pruning is necessary
   or desirable.
4. Remove weak, V-shaped crotches when tree is young.

Forsythia. Above, in need of pruning. All older branches of large diameter should be removed, i.e., cut back to ground. Below, left, properly pruned with numerous grace­ful branches that will flower heavily. Bight, improper pruning has destroyed graceful form and good blooming qualities. Prune in early spring or right after flowering

Shrubs

1. When moved bare-root, remove dead or broken roots, and cut back branches.

Evergreens

1. All evergreens should be moved with a ball of soil. Little or no top pruning is necessary.

Roses

1. Prune dead or broken roots.
2. Cut top back to 10- or 15-inch height.
3. Remove thin, spindly or crossing shoots.

HOW TO PLANT A TREE

Directions applicable to trees up to 5 inches in diameter. . . .

Time to plant. Fall or early spring. Preparation before planting. Roots
Do not allow to dry.

Soak in pail or tub of water if they seem dry when received.

Protect with moist burlap or cover with moist soil in a shallow trench (heel in) if unable to set plants out at once.

Cut back cleanly to firm wood with knife, if broken or bruised.

Tops. Prune off some of the branches, to compensate for unavoidable loss of roots in digging up. This will pre­vent excessive evaporation through leaves later.

How much to remove

In general, about one-fourth to one-third of the secondary branches.
Entire branches—rather than clip­ping off ends of branches. Include among these the branches that form tight or weak crotches.

Crowded or rubbing branches.

Do not cut main leader.

Hole (see diagrams below) Twice as wide and deep as roots.
Several inches of manure or humus mixed with soil in bottom of hole, and covered with several inches of soil.
Planting Trees (see diagram below)
Drive stake near center of hole, well down into solid earth. Set tree at ame depth as before, or an inch or two deeper—not more. Place trunk vertical.

How to plant a young tree How to set out a shrub

 OR A SHRUB

. ... or shrubs up to 5 feet tall

Shrubs (diagram on opposite page)
 Set at same depth as before—no deeper.
Place branches so that whole plant is well balanced.
Trees and shrubs
Spread roots out in hole. Fill hole with good topsoil.
Pack soil as it is filled in.
Tramp it with the feet after roots are covered (see drawing below).
Make it so firm that plant cannot be pulled up.
Wash it into crevices among roots with gentle stream of water from hose or watering can.
Leave saucer-shaped depression around plant—2 inches deep— for catching rain water and for watering (diagram opposite).

Mulch ground over hole with peal moss or salt hay, or other ma­terial several inches deep, to prevent excessive evaporation.

Later Care

Wrap trunks 2 inches or more in diam­eter with burlap or heavy paper, as shown. Leave on for two years, to protect trunk from sun scald and from attacks of insects.

Water plant adequately during first two years. In dry weather fill saucer-shaped depression with water three times at each watering, letting water soak in thoroughly before refilling.

Trunk wrapped with burlap or paper Packing soil firmly over roots

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